Introduction

The global demand for food is projected to increase by 70% by 2050, coinciding with a population exceeding 9 billion. This necessitates exploration of new food sources, particularly against the backdrop of mycotoxin concerns, notably patulin, a harmful contaminant commonly found in food. The World Health Organization estimates that 25% of global food production is tainted by mycotoxins. Among the numerous mycotoxins, this article will focus on patulin, a notable contaminant, and the related issues surrounding it.

Definition of Patulin

Patulin is a toxic chemical contaminant produced by several species of mold, primarily affecting food intended for young children. It has a molecular weight of 154.12 and a molecular formula of C7H6O4. Patulin is produced by various molds, particularly Penicillium expansum and Penicillium palatum, though molds from Aspergillus and Byssochlamys species can also produce it. Patulin is highly reactive and readily binds to nucleic acids and proteins, rendering it harmful to living organisms. This characteristic can lead to the rapid inactivation of contaminated food and feed.

Classification and Development of Patulin 

The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies patulin as a Group 3 carcinogen, indicating insufficient data for classification. In contrast, current data from Codex Alimentarius recommends a maximum concentration of 50 μg/kg (50 parts per billion) for products with the highest risk of patulin contamination, such as apples and their products. It is important to note that patulin contamination can affect all types of raw materials and foods, including bread, cheese, meat, grains, and vegetables. The consumption of patulin-contaminated fruits and vegetables can lead to various health issues, including embryotoxicity, teratogenic effects, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, gastrointestinal inflammation, immune suppression, ulcers, and bleeding. With today’s advancements in research, patulin is now classified alongside other regulated mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, fumonisins, and trichothecenes. European countries were among the first to establish limits on these toxins. Since 2003, European Regulation 1425/2003 has set a maximum level of 50 µg/L for fruit juices and derived products, 25 µg/L for solid apple products, and 10 µg/L for juices and foods intended for babies and young infants. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has also established a limit of 50 µg/L for patulin. Furthermore, in 2017, the FAO/WHO Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food established a provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 0.4 µg/kg/day to safeguard human health.

Sources of Patulin

Fruits’ surfaces and cores naturally contain diverse microorganisms, including patulin-producing species. Infections by these microorganisms occur only when mold penetrates the protective skin or seed cavity of the fruit. Major causes of such infections include insect infestation, disease, and physical damage. Penicillium expansum is a common spoilage mold found in apples and other fruits. However, numerous other molds, such as Aspergillus and Byssochlamys (particularly Byssochlamys nivea), also produce patulin. Penicillium expansum can contaminate not only apples but also a range of other fruits, including apricots, kiwis, peaches, plums, and even grapes under certain conditions.

Prevention of Patulin

Integrating Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) is crucial for avoiding patulin contamination in fruits and fruit products. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recommends implementing commercial practices and disease control measures in orchards. Precautions during harvesting and transportation, such as handling fruits carefully to minimize physical damage and contamination by soil, selecting fruits intended for immediate marketing, processing, and long-term storage, and monitoring storage conditions are essential. In processing facilities, applying GMPs including conducting quality inspections of fruits before processing, sorting to remove damaged fruits, and pressure washing can help minimize toxin contamination.

Effects of Patulin on the Agricultural Value Chain

Like other mycotoxins, patulin significantly impacts the agricultural value chain, affecting both developed and developing countries. Mycotoxins, including patulin, influence a vast range of food and feed products, ultimately affecting populations worldwide. The presence of patulin and other mycotoxins in food, feed, and beverages raises serious concerns for human and animal health. For instance, patulin can directly contaminate plant materials or products, or it can enter the food chain through contaminated feed, leading to residues in animal tissues, milk, and eggs. This inevitable presence of mycotoxins imposes a substantial ecological burden, contributing to annual losses of millions of dollars in agricultural production worldwide.

Conclusion

The occurrence of patulin is increasing, and its effects on human and animal health are widely recognized. While preventing patulin contamination is extremely challenging, implementing preventive measures particularly Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) during both pre-harvest and post-harvest stages for fruits, such as apples along with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), can significantly reduce the impact of patulin. Adopting these strategies before the emergence of patulin is a viable option for mitigating its effects on human and animal health, as well as on the broader food system, all while meeting consumer expectations.

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